Political system
Mongolia’s political journey reflects its resilience and desire for independence. After 200 years under Qing rule, Mongolia declared independence in 1911, appointing Bogd Khan as leader. In 1921, with support from the Russian Red Army, Mongolia became the world’s second socialist country. Following Bogd Khan’s death, it became the People’s Republic of Mongolia, operating as a one-party state under Communism.
In 1990, inspired by changes in Eastern Europe, Mongolia’s democratic revolution overthrew the Communist regime, leading to a multi-party system. A new constitution in 1992 established a free-market economy and rebranded the country as Mongolia, embracing democratic values. Today, the State Great Khural, a 126-seat parliament, elects the President and governs through multi-party elections in all 21 provinces. All citizens over 18 are eligible to vote, with elections requiring at least 50% turnout for validity.
Mongolia’s political evolution highlights its commitment to democracy, emerging as a vibrant, self-governed nation.
Administrative units
Mongolia is divided into 21 provinces, known as aimags, along with its capital city, Ulaanbaatar. Each province boasts unique cultural and natural attractions, making them ideal destinations for travelers seeking authentic experiences. The provinces are further divided into 333 soums (regional districts), which are then broken down into 1,664 bags (small communities or hamlets).
The South Gobi province covers an impressive area of 165,400 square kilometers, featuring expansive desert landscapes, dunes, and rugged mountains. Khuvsgul province, known for its breathtaking Khuvsgul Lake, has the largest provincial population, with around 121,900 residents. This region offers vibrant local communities and is a gateway to Mongolia’s rich nomadic culture.From the iconic steppe and desert landscapes of South Gobi to the serene waters and forested mountains of Khuvsgul, Mongolia’s diverse administrative regions invite visitors to explore distinct cultural heritages, natural wonders, and traditional lifestyles.
Post & Communication
Mongolia’s communication history dates back to the 13th century when Chinggis Khaan and his successors established the Urtuu relay system, an empire-wide network of messenger and postal stations across the vast Mongol Empire. Under Khublai Khaan’s Yuan Dynasty, this advanced network expanded to include China, facilitating the swift delivery of official correspondence, military orders, and diplomatic messages across continents.
These relay stations, spaced 15 to 40 miles apart, served not only for mail delivery but also offered essential amenities to traveling officials, foreign dignitaries, and traders. Couriers were provided with food, shelter, and fresh horses, allowing them to cover impressive distances of 20-30 miles per day. Historical accounts from visitors, such as Marco Polo, indicate the remarkable efficiency of this early postal system, which enabled the Mongol Empire to maintain communication across thousands of miles.
The modern system of communication in Mongolia began in 1898 when the first telephone line connected Khyahta with Ikh Khuree (current Ulaanbaatar). By 1914, the capital had its first 60-line telephone network, laying the foundation for further advancements in connectivity.
Today, calling internationally from Mongolia is straightforward. The country’s phone code is +976, and most hotels in Ulaanbaatar offer direct international calling. Mongolia’s mobile network operates on GSM, making it compatible with GSM phones from abroad. Travelers can easily purchase a local SIM card from leading providers—Mobicom, Skytel, Unitel, and G-Mobile—or opt for roaming, though international roaming reliability can vary.
In Ulaanbaatar, internet connectivity is strong and widely available. Most hotels, cafes, and service providers offer free, high-speed Wi-Fi, with 4G coverage extending across the capital. While rural connectivity is more limited, GSM and mobile internet coverage is steadily expanding to reach nearby provincial centers and villages, keeping travelers connected even in Mongolia’s vast open landscapes.
From the ingenuity of the Urtuu postal relays to today’s modern networks, Mongolia’s communication systems continue to evolve, balancing ancient heritage with cutting-edge technology to support the needs of residents and visitors alike.
Education in Mongolia
Mongolia boasts a well-established and extensive education system with a literacy rate of 98.7% as of 2023—an impressive achievement for a developing country. Education has long been a priority in Mongolia, and the nation’s commitment to accessible, high-quality education has transformed the landscape over the past century.
Prior to the 1921 revolution, Mongolia had no formal schooling system. Boys learned to read and write in Tibetan and Mongolian in monasteries, while children from elite families received private education at home. Following the revolution, Mongolia embarked on creating its first public schools to provide free education for all, building a foundation for universal literacy and educational attainment.
Modeled initially after the Soviet system, Mongolia’s education system offered a structured, ten-year program that has since evolved to align with European standards. Today, children begin primary school at age 6, progressing through five years of primary education, four years of middle school, and three years of high school. Compulsory education lasts nine years, with the school year beginning on September 1.
By 2022, Mongolia’s network of 820 primary and secondary schools included 662 public schools and 158 private institutions, providing students with a variety of options. Higher education, introduced after the revolution, follows a Soviet-inspired framework. The National University of Mongolia, established in 1942 in Ulaanbaatar, was the nation’s first university and remains one of its most respected, initially offering programs in education, medicine, and veterinary science.
Today, Mongolia’s higher education sector includes 94 universities and colleges that serve over 157,000 students. While tuition was introduced after the 1990s, the government and institutions offer scholarships to support students.
With a deep-rooted appreciation for learning, Mongolia continues to prioritize education for future generations, fostering a culture that values knowledge as a key to national progress and individual growth.
Health
Mongolia’s healthcare system has grown from a unique blend of ancient healing traditions and modern medical practices, creating a healthcare landscape that reflects both its rich cultural heritage and recent advancements. Before the arrival of Soviet assistance in the 1920s, healthcare in Mongolia was largely limited to traditional practices provided by local healers and monks who used herbal medicine, acupuncture, massage, bone-setting, and prayer to treat illness. These methods, deeply rooted in Mongolia’s nomadic way of life, remain popular even today and are seen as valuable complements to modern medicine.
The era of modern healthcare in Mongolia began in 1925 with the establishment of the first “People’s Hospital” by the Russian doctor Shastin, P. N. equipped with 15 beds. The socialist period saw a significant expansion of healthcare services, with policies focused on building a network of hospitals, clinics, and maternity homes across Mongolia. By the 1930s, the first hospitals and maternity centers in Ulaanbaatar were fully staffed by trained doctors and nurses, primarily under the guidance of Soviet medical professionals. During this period, medical treatment was entirely government-funded and free for all citizens, leading to a robust healthcare infrastructure and improved public health outcomes.
Following the transition to democracy in the 1990s, the healthcare system faced challenges with reduced funding, prompting reforms. In 1994, Mongolia introduced a national health insurance program and allowed private healthcare services, paving the way for an increasing number of private hospitals and clinics, particularly in Ulaanbaatar. These private facilities have significantly improved access to quality healthcare, and as a result, infant and overall mortality rates have continued to decline steadily.
In addition to healthcare, Mongolia has developed a strong social welfare system that supports various needs, including childcare, single-parent households, disability, and pensions. Unemployed individuals can register with employment agencies and receive government benefits, ensuring a safety net for citizens. However, despite these resources, many young Mongolians seek employment abroad in countries such as South Korea, Sweden, Czechia, Hungary, and the United States, driven by economic opportunities and career advancement.
Today, Mongolia’s healthcare and social welfare systems reflect both resilience and growth, balancing modern medical practices with time-honored traditions, and striving to meet the needs of a dynamic population.
Religion in Mongolia
Buddhism has shaped Mongolian culture, spirituality, and national identity across centuries, undergoing three significant waves of introduction. First brought to Mongolia from India in the 6th century, Buddhism’s influence strengthened during the 13th century and flourished in the 16th century as Tibetan Buddhism became a unifying force and symbol of nationalism.
In 1578, Abtai Sain Khan, a prominent Mongolian leader, invited a high-ranking Tibetan monk to Mongolia, initiating an era of religious devotion and national unity. During this period, Altan Khan, a powerful nobleman, bestowed the title “Dalai Lama” upon the Tibetan spiritual leader, a term meaning “Ocean of Wisdom.” This honor cemented the relationship between Mongolia and Tibetan Buddhism, leading to the construction of Mongolia’s first monastery, Erdene Zuu, in 1586.
One of Mongolia’s most influential religious figures, Zanabazar, known as the “Undur Gegeen” became the country’s spiritual leader in the 17th century. A direct descendant of Chinggis Khaan, Zanabazar promoted Buddhism’s spread, leading to the construction of more than 2,000 monasteries by the 20th century. With over 40 percent of the male population becoming celibate monks, these monasteries evolved into vibrant cultural centers with schools for art, and astronomy, fostering both religious and intellectual life.
By the 1930s, under the influence of Stalin, the Mongolian government launched an anti-religion campaign that destroyed over 700 monasteries and drastically reduced the number of practicing monks from 15,000 to just a few hundred. Precious artifacts were transported to the Soviet Union and melted down, yet many Mongolians secretly preserved their Buddhist beliefs. Family altars displayed images of Buddha alongside Lenin, and religious treasures were hidden, waiting for safer times.
With the collapse of communism and democracy in the 1990s, Buddhism experienced a powerful revival. More than 155 monasteries were reopened, and the ancient faith was rekindled in both urban and rural Mongolia. Today, around 50% of Mongolians identify as Buddhists, with 39% unaffiliated, 3% following Islam, 3% practicing traditional Mongol shamanism, 2% identifying as Christian, and 0.4% following other religions.
Buddhism’s legacy in Mongolia remains a testament to its resilience, playing a vital role in Mongolian art, education, and cultural identity. It continues to inspire a deep spiritual connection in Mongolian life, balancing traditional practices with modern influences and contributing to a unique cultural heritage admired worldwide.
Buu (Shaman) – Shamanism in Mongolia is a profound spiritual practice rooted in the belief that all beings—humans, animals, plants—are animated by conscious souls. Central to shamanism is the shaman, an individual with the unique ability to connect with the spirit world through trance states, practicing healing, divination, and guidance on behalf of their community.
Archaeological evidence indicates that Mongolian shamanism dates to the Neolithic period. By the 13th century, shamanism was the dominant religious system among the Mongol tribes. Shamans played powerful roles during Chinggis Khan’s reign, performing rituals to invoke weather magic, secure victory in battle, and gain favor for the warriors. However, the influence of Tibetan Buddhism began to spread in the 16th century, gradually reducing the prominence of shamanistic practices.
The democratic transition in the 1990s marked a period of revival for shamanism. Facing rapid economic and social changes, Mongolians began to seek a renewed sense of cultural identity, and shamanism emerged from the shadows as a symbol of true Mongolian heritage. New generations of shamans came forward, reawakening their ancestral spirits, often trained by elder shamans to carry on traditions that had been suppressed during the communist era. In 1996, a Shamanic Center was established, and today, Mongolia has over 20,000 registered shamans and ten institutions dedicated to this ancient practice.
At the heart of Mongolian shamanism is the veneration of Eternal Heaven and Mother Earth, connecting all beings across three realms: the 99 heavens, the 88 levels of earth, and the sunlit world of living beings. During ceremonies, shamans use rhythmic drumming, dance, and song to summon their spirit helpers. Through trance, they interact with ancestral and nature spirits, seeking solutions to illness, personal challenges, and community concerns. This ancestral legacy serves as a bridge between the natural and spiritual realms, embodying Mongolia’s enduring respect for the forces of nature and family harmony.
Today, Mongolian shamanism is not only a spiritual practice but also a testament to the resilience of Mongolia’s cultural identity, offering a unique glimpse into a tradition that balances ancient wisdom with the dynamic realities of modern life.
